From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The pilum (plural pila) was a throwing spear commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally about two meters long overall, consisting of an iron shank about 7 mm in diameter and 60 cm long with pyramidal head. The iron shank may be socketed or more usually widens to a flat tang, this was secured to a wooden shaft. A pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms, with the versions produced during the Empire being a bit lighter. Some versions of the weapon were weighted by a lead ball to increase penetrative power. Recent experiments have shown pila to have a range of 98 feet (approximately 30 m), although effective range of about half.

Legionaries of the Late Republic and Early Empire often carried two pila, with one sometimes being lighter than the other. Standard tactics called for a Roman soldier to throw his pilum (both if there was time) at the enemy just before charging to engage with his gladius. Some pila had small hand-guards, to protect the wielder if he intended to use it as a melee weapon, but it does not appear that this was common.

The late Roman writer Vegetius, in his work De Re Militari, wrote:

As to the missile weapons of the infantry, they were javelins headed with a triangular sharp iron, eleven inches or a foot long, and were called piles. When once fixed in the shield it was impossible to draw them out, and when thrown with force and skill, they penetrated the cuirass without difficulty.[1]

And later in the same work:

Their offensive weapons were large swords, called spathae, and smaller ones called semispathae together with five loaded javelins in the concavity of the shield, which they threw at the first charge. They had likewise two other javelins, the largest of which was composed of a staff five feet and a half long and a triangular head of iron nine inches long. This was formerly called the pilum, but now it is known by the name of spiculum. The soldiers were particularly exercised in the use of this weapon, because when thrown with force and skill it often penetrated the shields of the foot and the cuirasses of the horse. The other javelin was of smaller size; its triangular point was only five inches long and the staff three feet and one half. It was anciently called verriculum but now verutum.[2]

The small loaded (weighted) javelins to which Vegertius refers are weighted darts called Plumbatae.

Thanks in part to experimental archaeology, it is generally believed that the pilum's design evolved to be armour-piercing: the pyramidal head would punch a small hole through an enemy shield allowing the thin shank to pass through and penetrate a distance sufficient to hit the target. The thick wooden shaft provided the weight behind the punch.

Most later pila were constructed such that the iron shank would bend on impact. A pilum, having penetrated a shield through a small hole and its shank having bent would now be difficult to remove. An enemy, if not killed by the pilum, would have little time before closing with the legionaries and would have to discard his now-unwieldy shield before going into combat. Additionally, bent pila would be less suitable for reuse by a resourceful opponent. Early pila do not seem to have had this characteristic; Gaius Marius is sometimes given credit for this modification. Opinion among archaeologists used to be that the main function of the shank was to disable the pilum by bending, but it is now thought that the pilum was a weapon designed primarily to kill, the 'non-return' aspect being an added bonus.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

This is about the gladius weapon. For the 2003 video game Gladius, see Gladius (video game).

Gladius is Latin for "sword" (in general). Today it refers specifically to the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC (based on the swords of the Celtiberians) and designed especially for making short, powerful thrusts. Several different designs were used; among collectors and historical reenactors, the three primary kinds are known as the Mainz gladius, the Fulham gladius, and the Pompeii gladius (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archeological finds have uncovered an earlier version, the gladius hispaniensis ("Spanish sword"). Contrary to common belief, the gladius was not used by gladiators, who used a version with a shorter blade (300 mm–350 mm/12 in.–14 in. long).

The gladius was crafted from soft iron and the exterior was carburized using coal dust on the face of the anvil. This was necessary because the soft iron was not hard enough to have taken an edge before the carbon of the coal powder was added to the exterior of the blade.

It is straight and double-edged, with a V-shaped tip, and primarily constructed for thrusting action and use together with a large rectangular shield, the scutum. The cross-section of the gladius is typically a rhombus, providing the blade with good stability for stabbing. Stabbing was a very efficient technique as stabbing wounds, especially in the abdominal area, were almost always deadly. However, the gladius was also an efficient cutting weapon, and this property is amply demonstrated by Livy's account of the Macedonian wars whereby the Macedonian soldiers were horrified to see the grievous wounds caused by the Roman blades. [1] A Roman legionary would mount the scabbard holding the gladius on the right side, same as his sword hand, allowing a formation of soldiers to easily draw their swords without accidentally injuring soldiers to either side.

The gladius is frequently depicted in coats of arms, especially of military corps.

The name is Latin, so its plural is gladii rather than the normal English gladiuses. The diminutive form, gladiolus, is also the name of a flowering plant with sword-shaped leaves.

Some weapons experts and enthusiasts refer to the scabbard of a gladius by the Latin word vagina, which is Latin for "sheath (in general)." It acquired its modern meaning by means of a simple metaphor. The Romans generally did not use this word in its anatomical sense, but it does show up as a joke in Plautus, Pseudolus 4.7.85: "Did the soldier's 'sword' fit well into your 'sheath'?"

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Scutum is the Latin word for shield, although it has in modern times come to be associated with the standard semi-cylindrical type carried by Roman legionaries. The Republican curved body shield was oval -- as is shown by the Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus in Rome, the Aemilius Paullus monument at Delphi, or an actual example found at Kasr el-Harit in Egypt -- but gradually evolved into a rectangular (or sub-rectangular) shape during the early imperial period.

Curved scuta (pl.) were constructed largely of strips of overlapping bentwood, possibly set in place by steaming over a curved form (in much the same way as a modern plywood chair is made) although no direct evidence survives to prove this. This meant the shield was strong and yet light enough to be carried over long distances. The best surviving example, from Dura-Europos in Syria, was 1.06m (48in) in height, a chord of 0.66m (26in), with a distance around the curve of 0.86m (34in), and a thicknes of 5mm to 6mm. The curved shape of the shield allowed it to absorb (and deal) heavy blows, while the sides sloped away from the attacker, allowing arrows and enemy blows to glance off without transmitting the full force of the impact to the legionary sheltering behind it. The boss in the centre of the shield (the umbo), constructed either from copper alloy (brass or bronze) or iron, was itself used offensively, being heavy and dense enough to stun or wind an opponent (easing the legionary's subsequent strike with his gladius). Legionaries would typically advance alternately with the scutum and then (with the scutum partially raised, crowding and blocking the opponent) with the gladius. The edges of the shield were also bound in brass or rawhide, to reinforce and protect them, and may also have been used offensively.

The shape of the scutum allowed packed formations of legionaries to overlap their shields to provide an effective barrier against missiles. The most novel (and specialised, for it afforded negligible protection against other attacks) use was the testudo (Latin for "tortoise"), which added legionaries holding shields from above to protect against descending missiles (such as arrows or objects thrown by defenders on walls).

The name Scutum has been adopted as one of the 88 modern constellations, and by UK luxury clothing maker Aquascutum.

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Velites were a class of light infantry in the army of the Roman Republic,

The Velites (pronounced well-ih-tays) were skirmishers, armed with a short sword (Gladius) and several javelins. They wore light armor, which usually consisted of little more than greaves and a bronze helmet, and carried a basic round shield. Their armor and weaponry made them the most mobile of all the Roman infantry of the time. The Velites did not form their own line; maniples of Principe and Hastati had a certain number of velites assigned to them. During battle the Velites would engage the enemy with their javelins before retiring behind the Hastati and Principe. However, as with other irregular infantry, their effectiveness is often overlooked; the Velites were responsible for turning back war elephants on many different occasions.

The Velites of the Roman Republican army at its height in the 2nd century BC were remnants of the earlier rorarii and accensi classes, which were comprised of the unreliable and otherwise poor combatants of the original 5 class Phalanx. Though they still owned land, the Velites were usually the poorer of the Roman military accepted classes, until the time of Marius. During the time up until the establishment of the Roman Empire under Augustus, the Roman Army frequently accepted foreigners into its service in an effort to keep sufficient manpower. The Velites were disbanded when Augustus reorganized the army.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The plural of the Latin word princeps.

Legionary

Specifically, usually in the plural, in the military, the so-called Principes formed the second line of battle in the Roman Republican Army. They were experienced soldiers, positioned behind the hastati and in front of the triarii. Like all soldiers of the Roman Republican Army, they wore what armor they could afford. Like the hastati, the Principe were also equipped with a pilum and a gladius.

In battle, the principes were meant to counter attack if the hastati happened to fail in the initial engagement. Originally, the principes were organized like the hastati, in centuries of 60 under a Centurion. However, by the late Republican era, they contained 80 men like the triarii. Two centuries comprised a maniple and 10 maniples were used in battle line formation.

Politically

In the period of the later Republic and early Principate (approx. following the third Punic War and the razing of Carthage) principes began to refer not only to the men of the second line of battle in a Manipular/ Polybian Legion, but also to the men of the first rank of Roman Society. The traditional patriaciate of Nobiles and Optimates along with those successful equites and novi homines were the first citizens of Rome. Men, whome through their dignitas, auctoritas, and virtus, commanded the allegiance of the plebians and allied Italian states a like.

The proscriptions of Sulla and later Octavianus particularly targeted the politically unlucky men of principes status.

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

This page discusses the Roman military unit. See Cohort for other meanings.

A cohort (from the Latin cohors, plural cohortes) is a fairly large military unit, generally consisting of one type of soldier.

Military cohort

Originally, the cohort was a sub-unit of a Roman legion, consisting of 480 infantrymen. The cohort itself was divided into six centuries of 80 men commanded each by a centurion. Various terms described precise types of military cohorts:

• In the Imperial Roman auxiliary forces, there were individual cohorts with an establishment strength of 500 (cohors quingenaria) or of 1000 (cohors milliaria), as well as mixed infantry and cavalry units (cohors equitata) that existed in parallel.

Various terms describe precise types of auxiliary cohorts:

• Cohors alaria: allied or auxiliary unit.
• Cohors classica: auxiliary unit originally formed of sailors and marines.
• Cohors equitata (LA): unit of auxiliary infantry with attached mounted squadrons.
• Cohors peditata (LA): infantry unit.
• Cohors speculatorum (LA): guard unit of Mark Antony composed of scouts.
• Cohors torquata (LA): auxiliary unit granted a torques (military decoration).
• Cohors tumultuaria (from tumultus, "chaos"): irregular auxiliary unit.

Other Roman cohorts

Some paramilitary corps in Rome consisted of one or more cohorts, though neither were part of a legion:

• The nine cohortes praetoria, never grouped to a legion, the famous and infamous Praetorians. The term was first used to refer to the bodyguard of a General during the Republic; later, a unit of Imperial guards (temporarily restyled cohors palatina, "palace unit", circa 300 AD, under Diocletian's tetrarchy).
  • Cohors togata was a unit of the Praetorian guard in civilian dress tasked with duties within the pomerium (sacred center of the Capital, where all armed forces were forbidden).
• Cohortes urbanae, "urban cohort": military police unit patrolling in the capital.
• Cohortes vigilum, "watchmen"; unit of the police force annex fire brigade in the capital.
• Cohors Germanorum (LA): the unit of Germani custodes corporis (imperial body guards recruited in Germania).

Furthermore, the Latin word cohors was used in a looser way to describe a rather large "company" of people (see, for instance, cohors amicorum).